Psychology

Introduction

Psychology is the scientific study of the mind. We, as humans, are influenced by each other on many different levels, including on a psychological level. Concepts which our friends accept we, most likely, take up and accept as fact as well. People who are outside of our in-group (our circle of friends) are members of our out-group. We are more friendly to people we know that strangers. We have more in common with those who belong to our in-group than the people who are members of our out-group. We are not only influenced by others psychologically, but also sociologically, too. There are different branches of psychology, including popular psychology, Freudian psychology, social psychology, health psychology, cognitive psychology and parapsychology.

Concepts

Barnum effect - Believing that given information is uniquely applicable to yourself or a loved one even though the information is applicable to the majority of the population. The 'Barnum effect' can be found in: astrology readings, auric readings, mediumistic readings, numerological readings, palm readings, psychic readings, psychometric readings, Tarot readings.

Classical conditioning - Something (e.g. relaxation), which was caused by something else (e.g. meditation) is associated with having been caused by another factor (e.g. crystals) that was present, when in fact the effect (relaxation) was caused by something else (meditation) and not by another factor that happened to be present (crystals).  Is involved with Reiki/symbols, superstition, effects of crystal energies and energy sensing, and countless other things.

Cognitive dissonance - Accepting all information that confirms a belief and forgetting any information that does not confirm the belief; hence, the belief becomes strengthened, not weakened. It can be found in: Astrology readings, auric readings, mediumistic readings, numerological readings, palm readings, psychic readings, psychometric readings, Tarot readings.

Conformity, Social - See normative social influence and information social influence. Can be found in any social group, including: Mediumship/psychic circles, energy sensing groups.

Cold reading - Information that is vague, general, ambiguous and does not give any way, specific (such as home addresses). It can be found in: astrology readings, auric readings, mediumistic readings, numerological readings, palm readings, psychic readings, psychometric readings, Tarot readings.

Forer effect - Please see 'Barnum effect'.

Hypothesis, experimental - A hypothesis for an experiment, according to Learning to use statistical tests in psychology, by Judith Greene and Manuela D’Oliveira, p. 8 “…makes a prediction about the effects of one or more events on people’s behaviour.” A hypothesis can also be a hunch, or an informed guess from a previous experiment. A hypothesis is concerned as to the effect an independent variable (e.g. relaxation) has on a dependant variable (e.g. memory). Found in: experiments. 

Hypothesis, one-tailed - - According to Learning to use statistical tests in psychology, by Judith Greene and Manuela D’Oliveira, p.26, a one-tailed hypothesis is “…as its name implies, makes a prediction in one particular direction. An example might be that short sentences will result in more ideas being remembered than long sentences.”

Hypothesis, two-tailed - According to Learning to use statistical tests in psychology, by Judith Greene and Manuela D’Oliveira, p.27, a two-tailed hypothesis...

 Imitation  (as in 'social influence') - Copying the behaviour of a role model. For example, young girls applying make-up because their mum, sisters and girlfriends do; people wearing same clothing of a role model (such as a celebrity), or eating the same food as a role model/s (such as friends).

Informative social influence - Information from a peer/group is believed to be correct and not wrong in any way. Can be found in society’s beliefs (e.g. ‘global warming’, microwaves are safe/dangerous, chemtrails are harmful/harmless, North Pole ice is melting/not changing; the Spirit World does/doesn't exist, etc.), peer group members’ beliefs (e.g. there is/isn’t New World Order, psychic abilities exist/don’t exist, etc.), family members’ beliefs passed down to their spouse (religious, scientific, etc.).

Meta-analysis - According to Research Methods in Psychology, by John J. Shaughnessy and Eugene B. Zeichmeister, Chapter 6: Independent Groups Designs, p. 231, a meta-analysis is “…a valuable tool that makes it easier to summarize the results of experiments investigating the same independent variable or dependant variable. Meta-analysis is the analysis of the results of individual experiments. These results are summarized using measures of effect size…” Can be used for any experiments and has been used in examining parapsychological experiments testing ESP.

Normative social influence - Believing that the behaviour or mannerism from a peer/group is correct

Psi & Psychology

Given that all complementary therapies that are supposed to work with energy (such as a channelling and exchange of energy in Reiki treatments), seem to all work on a psychological basis, hypothetically, is it possible that:

a) these therapies work purely on a psychological basis

or

b) these therapies do work with Psi (energy) but that how Psi works and functions (and, therefore, the therapies) is actually through Psychology?

What processes that are involved in energy healing treatments seem to be psychological in nature, but that doesn't mean that the treatments do not involve Psi, merely that the treatments function psychologically. But how would this hypothesis be tested, let alone be confirmed or disproved? As it is, in ESP experiments, although an above-average score had been found, suggestive of something such as ESP was at work, it does not prove that ESP was at work; indeed, the score could be explainable with one yet to have been thought up. If it was ESP, the stimulus behind it may have been Psi.

       In the same way, how would it be provable scientifically that complementary do not just work psychologically, but also that they involve Psi?

Bibliography

Psychology, Research Methods in - by J. Shaughnessy and Eugene B. Zeichmeister

Psychology, Learning to use statistical tests in - by Judith Greene and Manuela D’Oliveira

Psychology Students, Study Skills for - by Sylvie C. Collins and Pauline E. Kneale